One of the factors that can be the link between our intentions and actions and their external consequences is human agency, which indicates the conscious design and intentional execution of actions by the individual in order to influence future events.Objective and Method: This research with a developmental approach of psychometric method and method 1, examines the psychometric indices of the Human Factor Characteristics Scale using the classical theory of test score measurement and the graduated question-answer theory. The purpose of this study, which included high school students in Tehran, was selected by cluster sampling of 500 people as a sample size and statistical analysis was performed on 481 data. To collect the data, the ion Human Agent Characteristics Scale (2011) was used and the research questions were evaluated using IRTPRO and SPSS software.Results:The assumption of local independence based on Pearson x2 index was established by applying Simjima's calibrated question-answer theory and the assumption of being one-dimensional based on the analysis of multidimensional question-answer theory. Diagnosis parameters with question-answer approach and classical approach Test score Both item 25 approach had the lowest and item 2 had the highest diagnosis parameter. The answer thresholds for all the questions were so far apart that no option was covered by the other option, and the options were independently selected by individuals at intervals of theta. The total scale was calculated with Cronbach's alpha of 0.945, intentionality of 0.894, foresight of 0.780, self-reactivity of 0.871 and rethinking of 0.762. Also, the role of each item in internal consistency was investigated by the loop method, which all questions had a favorable role in internal consistency of this scale. The value of the validity coefficient obtained from the question-answer theory was obtained by marginal method for intentionality 0.92, forethought 0.85, self-reaction 0.91, rethinking 0.83..

“Advocacy Planning” as a term was coined by Paul Davidoff in his mid-1960s article in he AIP journal. Being introduced in 1960s, the approach enjoyed vast popularity in 1970s, and its refined version was put into effect in USA and UK then after. The core of Davidoff idea is that different social groups shall be able to suggest alternative development plans for regions, cities, and neighborhoods. These plans may compete with each other so that the best one would be selected. Davidoff argues: if, as it has often being claimed, planning is a rational technocratic process, then all of alternative plans should be the same. But this is not the case. In practice, plans are meaningfully different because planning is primarily a political procedure, reflecting preferences of various social groups.By acknowledging pluralism in planning, Davidoff believes that planners should act as advocates of urban or rural communities, vocational or ethnic groups, cities, regions etc. He or she should accept values, interests and preferences of the client social group.Advocacy planning has been criticized seriously. The main criticism is about the contradictory role of a planner: what is his or her main task? Taking care of the community interests, broader group's interests or professional rules or norms which somehow reflect interests of more people.Furthermore, advocacy planners have been accused of diverting communities from more radical forms of social change. Some other criticizes advocacy planners as they rarely are the real representatives of their client communities.

The theory of preparation of "Structure- Strategic Plans" was proposed by me at the beginning of my new profession as the Director General of Urban Planning Office, Ministry of Housing and Urban Development in 1990 and preparation of the "County Structure- Strategic (Development) Plans" (sub-region level) were started according to this theory as the first step of bringing changes in the urban development system of Iran. The second step for changing the urban development planning system was proposed by preparation of the "City Structure- Strategic Plans" instead of the Master (Comprehensive) plans (traditional system) and "Basic Detailed Plans", "Action Area Plans" and "Subject Plans" (local level) in 1997. I started preparation of the city structure- strategic plan for Tehran, when I was the Deputy of Mayor of Tehran for Architecture and Urban Development with preparation of terms of reference and selection of consulting engineers for all 22 boroughs of municipality of Tehran in 2001.Selection of structure- strategic plans as the title of the theory is because it is necessary to prepare the structure of economic, social and physical development of the county or city at first and then the strategies for fulfillment of those structures should be proposed. Action area plans and subject plans should be prepared according to the proposals of the structure- strategic plan of the city for those areas or subjects which are introduced in that plan as the implementable projects in the scale of urban design. Basic detailed plans are also prepared according to the proposals of the city structure- strategic plan for those areas which are outside of the action area or subject plans limits.The process of the preparation of the structure- strategic plans is quite deferent with other planning processes. The proposed process has spiral shape and it has 8 steps in each cycle as follows: First cycle: Preparation of Structural– Strategic Plan, Action Area Plans, Subject Plans and Basic Detailed Plan.(First 5 Year) -Recognition, problem and difficulties analysis and considerations -Purpose objectives -Primary vision presentation -Presentation of various alternatives, their evaluation, best choice selection and final vision -Compiling of future city developmental structures -Presentation of strategies for city developmental structure fulfillment -Preparation of action area plans, subject plans and basic detailed plans. (First 5 Year) -Implementation of action area plans, subject plans and basic detailed plan and evaluation of implemented plans.Second Cycle: Revision of Structural– Strategic Plan and Basic Detailed Plan and preparation of Action Area Plans, Subject Plans. (Second 5 Year) -Evaluation of development rate after plans implementation of first cycle -Determination of purposes fulfillment method and rate of economic, social, cultural, environmental and physical development -Revision and determination of final vision (according to economic, social and cultural, environmental and physical development) -Revision and determination of city future developmental structures (economic, social and cultural, environmental and physical structures) -Revision and determination of fulfillment strategies of city development structures -Revision of basic detailed plan -Provision of action area plans (second 5 years) -Provision of subject plans (second 5 years).

This paper aims to introduce main axioms of Marxian theory of planning, and its development during twentieth century as well as the recent decade, enabling reader to compare it with other theories. Although the practice of planning began in Soviet Union, Marxist writers were not pioneers in developing a distinct theory of planning. Therefore, to grasp the essence of a Marxian approach to planning, one has to follow all important interpretations and analyses that pro-Marx scholars have published on planning in the capitalist or socialist countries, during the aforementioned time span.A historical review demonstrates that neither Marx nor none of his most distinguished disciples inRussian Social Democratic Workers Party, among them Lenin and Trotsky, had ever tried to explain planning as a distinct question per se significantly. However, negation of market mechanism and capitalism, as well as emphasizing on social ownership versus private property, automatically led to state ownership of productive sources and planning for exploiting them. In this stage, planning was considered a matter of routine by socialist thinkers. Therefore, there was no need for theorizing.Nevertheless, as the first bottlenecks and ambiguities appeared, deliberation on planning began. Furthermore, Great Depression of 1930s and destructions of Second World War brought about hot debates on what should be done to overcome capitalist cyclic crises and how capitalist planning could be recognized from socialist one. These questions and many other similar ones made Marxian thinkers, among others, to deliberate on planning as an important process of intervention in economy and society with very important good and bad results.Today, Marxian scholars including neo-Marxists and post-Marxists still consider planning, an absolute necessity of the modern society, but few of them believe that planning should be the only regulating system of economy, and must substitute the market. Furthermore, all of them are against capitalism, claiming that this system is not able to carry on the basic choices of any economy, but few of them still believe that a state-owned means of production and central planning would lead to socialist society.Nowadays, post-Marxists, among them regulation theorists, emphasize on regime of regulation instead of ownership system and believe that by establishing a system that embraces private and cooperative sector, state sector and civil sector (non-profitable endeavors) and a banking system, with more responsibility and responsiveness towards the public, a more equalitarian and suitable condition may come about.

Achieving rural development goals in Iran as depends on adopting suitable social, ‎economic and physical approaches, it involves the use of a compatible and effective ‎approach to rural development planning process (preparation and implementation of ‎development plans).‎ Up to now, rationalism and communicative approaches to frame and process of ‎development planning were under consideration, but in Iran planning system, ‎rationalism approach has been preferred to communicative approach which has been ‎taken in to consideration at world planning literature since last years of twentieth ‎century‏. ‏‎‎ What are the deficiencies and weaknesses of prevalent approach in development ‎planning process of Iran? Which choice is a suitable one for Iran rural development ‎planning process? Answers to these questions are the goal of this article that is ‎presented in analytic and descriptive method‏. ‏‎‎ According to results of searches, "pivotal specialty" and "non-participatory ‎characteristic" have caused rationalism approach to face some weakness and many ‎failures, so with attention to conditions, the choice of communicative approach is of ‎essential necessities for rural development planning process in Iran‏.‏

The aim of this paper is presenting an account of the development of the body of knowledge which so far has been known as planning theory. This branch of knowledge studies the major issues related to different kinds of planning.hough, the origin of planning practice was in Soviet Union, the first steps toward creating a set of theoretical axioms for justifying and explaining planning was taken in capitalist world and in the turn of the 20th century, These attempts were based on theory of Rationalization of Weber and ideas of Karl Manheim on the conscious administration of the society and economy.

Aims Today, the inconsistencies range of last seven decades planning and urban plans which were due to the lack of formulating an indigenous theory base on the Iran’, s planning environment characteristics, are visible. Achieving to the interacted urban planning theory with the official structural elements of Iran’, s planning environment is the research aim. Methodology This is a qualitative research with the critical approach. “, Classical Grounded theory”,is the foundation of research provision. Targeted semi-structured interviews with 30 experts and documentary research of 100 published scientific and research documents (1991-2020) provided the data that coded by the MAXQDA software. The research validity was confirmed by reviewing the literature and “, Assessment with the seven criteria of Strauss and Corbin”,and “, Assessment with the Cresol questions”, . Findings In the data linking (860 open cods) and conceptualizing process of this research, with “, autographs”,and the participation of interviewees, the basic codes of “, macro-planning structure”, , “, theories and theoretical frameworks”,and “, planning environment”,were identified. The official planning structure and “, the elements of the official urban planning structure”,and the basic code of “, coordination model of the official planning structure elements”,and three basic categories of: “, incoordination and inconsistency in the process of providing and implementation the plan”, , “, inconsistency and incoordination of theoretical frameworks of planning model”,and “, incoordination In the urban governance”,with using the “, graph model”,was clarified. Conclusion The research showed: the “, coordination”,concept is the codes and categories central core which lead to the interacted planning theory with the elements of the official structure of Iran’, s planning environment. The focal phenomenon that shows “, the theory of this research”,is “, coordinated planning”,with the strategies of: “, theoretical guidance for organizing a coordinated planning process”,and “, practical guidance for coordinating the role, viewpoint, interaction, etc. of institutions and users involved in planning”, .